A long-running dispute over the compulsory wearing of the hijab has returned to the centre of debate in Iran, as authorities face growing pressure from hardliners to enforce the rules while many women continue to defy them. The issue has resurfaced amid the country’s war with the United States, an economic crisis and a restructuring of its hardline leadership under Supreme Leader Mojtaba Khamenei.

During the height of the conflict, women without headscarves were frequently seen at pro-government gatherings and on state media. Security forces appeared to have more immediate concerns as the war intensified.

In one video, an unveiled woman carrying an Iranian flag said her husband was serving in the military and that she was proud of him. But in recent weeks, calls for a tougher approach have grown, with conservative clerics and politicians describing women appearing without the hijab as “public nudity”.

Many women continue to disregard the rules openly, while the authorities appear reluctant, for now, to launch a widespread crackdown. Instead, Iranian state media have increasingly reported on businesses being closed for allegedly failing to enforce dress rules.

A review of Iranian media reports by CNN at the end of July found cases in at least six cities, including Tehran.

The issue has particular significance in Iran following the 2022 death of Mahsa Amini, a 22-year-old woman who died in police custody after being detained over allegations that she was improperly dressed.

Her death triggered the “Woman Life Freedom” protest movement, which was violently suppressed by the authorities.

Amnesty International said at the end of 2024 that Iranian authorities were waging war on women and girls “through an increasingly violent crackdown on those defying draconian compulsory veiling laws”.

The protests nevertheless had lasting effects. Despite repeated warnings and sporadic enforcement, many women, particularly younger women, continue to appear in public without headscarves.

Human rights group HRANA said at least seven cafes and restaurants in Tehran were closed on 19 July for allegedly failing to enforce the mandatory hijab. It has also compiled lists of social media accounts that have been blocked over alleged violations of public dress codes.

HRANA said authorities had relied on broad descriptions including “violation of norms”, “violation of modesty” and “failure to observe Islamic decency”.

In one case this month, it said a boutique had been closed “due to unveiling”. On Monday, the Tehran Prosecutor’s Office said it would take serious action against alleged “indecency” violations at certain cafes and restaurants, as well as shops selling clothing considered unconventional or inappropriate.

In South Khorasan province, 10 cafes were closed over alleged violations of “social norms and mandatory hijab rules”, the Mehr news agency reported, citing the province’s chief prosecutor.

Iranian state media have also given prominent coverage to clerics calling for stricter enforcement.

Mohammad Javad Haj Ali Akbari, who leads Friday prayers in Tehran, alleged there were organised efforts to promote “nudity” and claimed some people were being paid to appear in public in “improper” clothing.

Hardliners have also urged the government to act.

Hossein Shariatmadari, editor of the conservative Kayhan newspaper, told CNN that enforcing the rules was both a legal obligation and a religious duty. A Tehran Municipality television programme, “Park Way”, has devoted several episodes to women’s clothing and called for action against people who violate approved dress codes.

One episode said “unconventional behaviors should not be exhibited by anyone in public places such as parks”.

Women supporting compulsory veiling have also organised demonstrations. At a small rally in Isfahan this week, one placard read: “Netanyahu: Unveiled women are our soldiers for free.”

There is no evidence that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has made that remark. But the slogan reflects a broader narrative promoted by Iranian hardliners that women who reject the hijab may be disloyal to the country.

There have also been high-profile cases involving people accused of violating the rules.

In June, Iranian singer Parastoo Ahmadi and eight members of her band and production team were sentenced in Qom to 74 lashes and banned from leaving Iran for two years. Ahmadi had appeared with uncovered hair and bare shoulders during an event that she livestreamed on YouTube in 2024.

The charges included “offending public decency through the production and publication of vulgar and immoral content on cyberspace platforms”.

Yet evidence of resistance continues to emerge online.

Videos have shown young Iranian women riding scooters through Tehran and other cities wearing helmets but no headscarves. The government has not yet fulfilled a promise to issue women licences to ride motorbikes.

One Instagram post showed a group of women declaring: “We’re the motorcycle girls of Shiraz! Shiraz girls, let’s go!” Another account posted footage of about 20 female motorcyclists in Isfahan, describing it as “the biggest female motorcycle event in Isfahan”.

For some Iranians, the renewed focus on the hijab appears out of step with the country’s wider problems, including war and economic hardship.

President Masoud Pezeshkian has questioned whether laws can change people’s behaviour. Referring to an interview with a conservative cleric, he said: “The cleric mentioned hijab… Well, there are neighborhoods, there are mosques – go and work on it there! Can you really change people’s behavior through laws?”

He also spoke about disagreements with his daughter. “Does it mean I should force her?!” he asked. “Changing behavior is a cultural matter; it’s about belief. You can’t create belief in people through force.”

Former MP Gholamali Jafarzadeh Imanabadi has similarly argued that officials should prioritise inflation and people’s livelihoods. An unofficial media outlet published an article asking: “A Provocation to a War-Weary Public – What Is Behind the Return of Hijab Patrols and Business Closures?”

The compulsory hijab has been a feature of Iranian law since the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Before the revolution, the monarchy promoted a more secular and westernised image of women. Article 638 of Iran’s Islamic Penal Code criminalises women appearing in public without “Islamic hijab”, although it does not provide a precise definition of the term.

A tougher law approved in 2024 would have introduced wider penalties and surveillance, but its implementation was halted after intervention by the Supreme National Security Council.